Sweet Potato Pie: A Timeless Delight from 1909 to Today!

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Cooking with Library and Archives Canada bannerBy Dylan Roy

You probably don’t know me, but you might recognize my hands from previous blog posts in this series by Ariane Gauthier. If you haven’t read the articles yet, I highly recommend doing so. In these baking adventures, I served as the muscle and hand model, guided by Ariane, a far more passionate and skilled baker than I. However, for the sweet potato pie recipe featured in this article, I embarked (mostly) solo into the complex and fascinating realm of baking.

As a novice baker attempting my first-ever baking project, I was initially apprehensive about following a recipe that provided very little guidance. Despite my doubts, my pie turned out quite tasty! I invite you to follow my journey below and try making the recipe for yourself.

Before delving into the culinary endeavours ahead, let’s explore the chosen recipe’s source.

Published in 1909, Culinary Landmarks or Half-Hours with Sault Ste. Marie Housewives was a labour of love by members of the St. Luke’s Woman’s Auxiliary from the Sault Ste. Marie area, in Ontario. It’s the third edition of what was originally known as the Handy Cook Book. The first version was so well received that a second and lengthier third edition were published. The third edition includes the recipe I followed.

The first question an inexperienced baker like myself might ask is: where does one start? The answer lies in following the recipe from Culinary Landmarks or Half-Hours with Sault Ste. Marie Housewives, which can easily be found in Aurora, Library and Archives Canada’s (LAC) library catalogue.

Recipe for sweet potato pie, by Mrs. P.T. Rowland.

A recipe for sweet potato pie from Culinary Landmarks or Half-Hours with Sault Ste. Marie Housewives (OCLC 53630417).

The ingredients for this recipe are rather simple. You need one pound of sweet potato, three-quarters of a pound of butter, three-quarters of a pound of sugar, six eggs, nutmeg, a bit of whisky, and some lemon zest (along with the components for the pie pastry, which we’ll discuss further below).

Upon reviewing this recipe, you’ll notice that there are no instructions on how to prepare the pie crust. As a rookie baker, this posed a significant challenge for me. Fortunately, I found salvation in a previous article in this series, which explains how to make pie dough.

Photo featuring ingredients for sweet potato pie: butter, whisky, flour, sugar, lemon, nutmeg, eggs, and sweet potato.

Ingredients used by the author to make the sweet potato pie recipe from Culinary Landmarks or Half-Hours with Sault Ste. Marie Housewives. Image courtesy of Ariane Gauthier.

Once you’ve gathered all your ingredients, you can start the pie-making extravaganza! The first step involves boiling the sweet potatoes. While the original recipe advises boiling the potatoes with the skin on, I opted to peel them for my own reasons.

After boiling them, I started the arduous task of pressing the still-hot potatoes through a colander. Be prepared for a bit of exertion during this step, but rest assured—it’s a great opportunity for a workout!

Collage of three images, including slices of sweet potatoes being added to a pot of boiling water; sweet potatoes being mashed with a spatula; and sweet potatoes being pressed through a colander.

Boiling and pressing sweet potatoes. Image courtesy of Ariane Gauthier.

Next, I beat six eggs in a bowl and set them aside. Then, I creamed together the butter and sugar. After that, I mixed in the sweet potatoes, continuing to blend. Finally, I added the eggs until the mixture was homogeneous.

Collage of four images, including sugar being poured into a mixer with butter; mashed sweet potatoes being added to the same mixer; and eggs being added after all the other ingredients.

Mixing butter, sugar, sweet potatoes and eggs. Image courtesy of Ariane Gauthier.

While mixing everything together, I must admit it didn’t look appetizing. However, I reminded myself to trust the process and have patience. This baking experience taught me the importance of believing in the recipe and persevering despite initial appearances. So, despite the unappealing look, I remained optimistic and continued on.

Once everything was mixed, I began incorporating the recipe’s flavours: nutmeg, whisky and lemon zest. This step is vital for enhancing the pie’s flavour profile. Initially, I added an ounce of whisky and a small amount of lemon zest and nutmeg. However, upon tasting, I found it lacking. Therefore, I continued to mix while gradually adding more lemon zest and nutmeg. After a few minutes, I achieved the perfect balance. Voilà! The mixture was ready to fill the pie pastry. As for the pastry itself, I baked it for about five minutes before adding the mixture, which may or may not have been a brilliant idea (I’ll leave that for you to discover by trying it yourself!).

Side-by-side images of whisky being poured into a mixer with other ingredients, and filling being poured into a pie crust.

Mixing in an ounce of whisky and adding the mixture to the pie crust. Image courtesy of Ariane Gauthier.

Baking the pie for about 30 minutes at 400°F (about 205°C) seemed to do the trick. I was a little worried about the filling puffing up, but I left the pie in the oven, even though it looked like a balloon ready to pop! I utilized some of the leftover dough to create designs on the pie and even had enough mixture left to make pudding. My cooking partner Ariane also made a pie. You can check out our final creations below.

Image featuring two sweet potato pies with embellishments made from leftover crust mix; a sweet potato pudding; and a pair of red oven mitts.

Sweet potato pies and pudding. The author’s pie is on the right, while Ariane’s pie is on the left.
Image courtesy of Ariane Gauthier.

Despite it being my first attempt at baking, I’m pleased to report that my pie turned out to be delicious, a sentiment echoed by my colleagues who sampled it. While the first pie provided valuable lessons on what to do and what to avoid, leading to improvements in the second attempt, the process was not without its trials and errors. Nevertheless, I wholeheartedly encourage you to try your hand at baking this pie and to share your thoughts as you savour a slice of history! With that said, I’d like to conclude this blog with an excerpt from the book that inspired this recipe:

Pastry: The queen of hearts, she made some tarts. All on a summer day; The knave of hearts, he ate a tart, And then, oh, strange to say! It smote his inmost, vital part—His heart was gone straightway.

Detail from Culinary Landmarks or Half-Hours with Sault Ste. Marie Housewives (OCLC 53630417).

If you try this recipe, please share pictures of your results with us using the hashtag #CookingWithLAC and tagging our social media: Facebook, Instagram, X (Twitter), YouTube, Flickr and LinkedIn.

Dylan Roy is a Reference Archivist in the Access and Services Branch at Library and Archives Canada.

Fifty Years after the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry: Environmental Impacts in the Northwest (Part 1)

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Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry Blog banner with a view of Mackenzie River Delta from Black Mountain near Aklavik in Northwest Territories.By Elizabeth Kawenaa Montour

The Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (MVPI), also known as the Berger Inquiry, was enacted fifty years ago in 1974 by the Canadian Government. The purpose of the Inquiry was to investigate and report findings, which would be followed by appropriate actions. The final report (Volume One and Volume Two) was published in 1977. Library and Archives Canada (LAC) holds the original collection of the Inquiry records, and they are managed by Government Archives Division.

This is the first of a three-part series. Part one will revisit the events prior to the Inquiry and the areas the proposed project would impact. Part two will focus on people who were involved in the Inquiry, and part three will include specific details on how to search through the records of the MVPI.

Caterpillar machinery with lift and claw holding pipeline to drop into parallel ditch in ground. Ground edged by snow. Several workers standing on snow and one standing on claw mechanism. Two tall trees on the left side of the picture with short branches with no leaves.

Coating or taping machine used in laying pipeline during ditching operation for a 24″ pipeline construction job. Photograph presented as evidence to the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry by G. L. Williams, 21-22 April 1975 (MIKAN 3238077).

The Mackenzie River is known as “Dehcho” (big river) by the Slavey (Dene), “Kuukpak” (great river) by the Inuvialuk and “Nagwichoonjik” (river flowing through a big country) by the Gwich’in (Dene). The colonial name of “Mackenzie” originated after the explorer Alexander Mackenzie visited the area in 1789.

The Mackenzie River winds through the Northwest Territories (NT), flowing northwest to the Mackenzie Delta. Just past the midway area of the river, immense limestone cliffs known as the Fee Yee (Ramparts) rise from the edge of the Mackenzie River. The river continues until it reaches the Mackenzie Bay at the Beaufort Sea in the Arctic Ocean. To the west of the river in NT and ending in the Yukon is the Mackenzie Mountain Range, a northern extension of the Rocky Mountains.

Black and white photograph of a river with vertical flat cliffs on the right side. The top layer of the cliffs holds trees and vegetation. To the left side and further off in the distance is a similar geological feature. The river runs between the two features.

Fee Yee (The Ramparts), Mackenzie River. Original title: The Ramparts, Mackenzie River (e011368927).

Treaty 11

The Dene had already given the name “Le Gohlini” (where the oil is) to Norman Wells, predating the arrival of colonial visitors. Tar was applied for waterproofing canoes and was made from small amounts of oil obtained from seepages. The sharing of their knowledge of the oil seepages resulted in Imperial Oil’s drilling program in 1919 and 1920. In 1920, oil was struck in the area of “Tutil’a” (“the place where the rivers meet” in Sahtu Dene; “Fort Norman” in English), and the construction of a small oil refinery followed. These events led to the signing of Treaty 11 in 1921 and 1922 by the Crown and representatives of the Dehcho, Tłı̨chǫ, Sahtu and Gwich’in peoples. The area covers 950 000 km2 of present-day Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The Canadian Government’s interpretation of Treaty 11 secured title of these lands to the Crown, whereas the Dene saw the treaty as a peace and friendship agreement.

Four black and white silver gelatin prints mounted on paper: three of boats in a river with shoreline scenes and one of crude storage tanks on shore.

S.S. “Mackenzie River” at Norman Wells, S.S. “Distributor” being loaded with barrelled gasoline, M.T. “Radium King” at Norman Wells, Imperial Oil ltd. tanks at Norman Wells, Northwest Territories. Date: 1938 (e010864522).

In 1968, a massive oil strike at Prudhoe Bay in Alaska moved energy investors to create proposals to move the oil and natural gas to southern United States and Canadian markets. The same year, the Task Force on Northern Oil Development was created, which resulted in the development of the federal government’s official northern pipeline guidelines, published in 1970 and expanded in 1972.

A pipeline proposal by Arctic Gas would have construction originating at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska on the Beaufort Sea to cross through the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Alberta and to include transportation of additional gas resources along the way to the United States.

Coloured map of physical land and water features with provincial, territorial and American state names. Pipeline companies’ names and sections affiliated with them are highlighted by solid or black broken lines.

The proposed route for the Mackenzie Valley Gas Pipeline. Map part of: Northern frontier, northern homeland: the report of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, volume one / Thomas R. Berger. 1977. Publication with map.
Library and Archives Canada/OCLC 1032858257, p. 6

As complex as the planning and construction of the infrastructure to support and build the pipeline was, the same complexity existed for the effects the pipeline would have on the environment, wildlife, and people of the land. The pipeline would also bring additional associated industrial development of an unknown scope. The result was that the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline was never built, although new projects would be proposed in its place.

Discovering the MVPI digitized collection materials

The records of the MVPI were transferred to the public archives of Canada in February 1978. All MVPI records are open to the public for research purposes, though not all records are digitally available. Additional keywords for searches may include “Berger Commission” or “Berger Inquiry”.

To become familiar with using Collection Search and to begin your MVPI records search, use the following links:

The MVPI collection includes the following digitized transcripts:

  • Exhibits presented to the Inquiry
    • Community hearing exhibits of 700 files of textual records dated from 1975–1976.
      • Each file is a submission with recorded exhibit number, date and author.

Elizabeth Kawenaa Montour is an archivist in the Government Archives Division of the Government Records Branch at Library and Archives Canada.

Women in the War: the Royal Canadian Air Force at 100

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By Rebecca Murray

Please note that many of the visuals for this article were taken from digitized microfiche; as such, the image quality varies, and individual item-level catalogue descriptions are not always available.

The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) is celebrating 100 years in 2024. Library and Archives Canada (LAC) holds records from the RCAF’s earliest days through to the 21st century. From its role in Canadian aviation to operations abroad, the RCAF has an important place in Canadian military history. Other posts on this site address infrastructure like airports (specifically RCAF Fort St. John) and notable moments such as the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow. This post will focus on the photographic holdings of the RCAF at LAC, specifically the Second World War–era photographs of servicewomen.

A uniformed woman stands against a blank wall.

HC 11684-A-2 “Great coat with hat and gloves,” 04/07/1941 (MIKAN 4532368).

Another colleague’s post outlines the history of the RCAF Women’s Division (RCAF-WD), so I won’t repeat it here, except to say that it was formed on July 2, 1941 (officially as the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, changing its name by early 1942) and would eventually see more than 17,000 women serving within its ranks.

Two women wearing coveralls sit on either side of a propellor.

PBG-3143 “Women’s Division—Aero Engine Mech.,” 23/10/1942 (MIKAN 5271611).

The Department of National Defence fonds (RG24/R112) holds photographs of these women and documents their service during the Second World War era. Comprising over 500,000 photographs, this collection is a rich resource for anyone interested in the period as it includes photographs from both Canada and overseas. Over the past six years, I have been working closely with the photographs to find the servicewomen. Some of them are documented clearly and given centre stage in photographs. Others are found on the fringes, sometimes almost indistinguishable at first glance from their male counterparts in group photographs.

A seated uniformed man wearing glasses (left) looks towards a standing uniformed woman (right).

RE-1941-1 “Pay and Accounts Section (Crosswinds),” 25/09/1944 (MIKAN 4740938).

The occasion of the RCAF’s 100th birthday is a fitting moment to share the results of the work with this particular sub-series of photographs while highlighting the role that servicewomen played in the RCAF’s ranks during this period. Composed of 53 sub-sub-series of photographs, usually distinguished by location, the images vary widely—from aerial views of Canada to official portraits to post-war photographs of life and operations at European bases like North Luffenham and Station Grostenquin. The bread and butter of this sub-series, though, for most interested parties, is the imagery that documents the day-to-day operations and lives of servicemen and women during the Second World War, whether at home or abroad.

Four uniformed women stand and kneel around a Christmas tree positioned atop a table. Wrapped gifts appear on the floor and underneath the tree.

NA-A162 “WD’s Xmas tree & Xmas dance,” 25/12/1943 (MIKAN 4532479).

At over 160,000 distinct images, this sub-series is a treasure trove for any researcher with an interest in the period! Approximately 1,900 of those images (1%) are of servicewomen, both RCAF-WDs and nursing sisters who served in the RCAF. Servicewomen are best represented within this sub-series in photos from Ottawa, Rockcliffe or Headquarters, with strong representation from those taken at regional bases such as those in Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and British Columbia.

The photographic collection shows us the WDs (as they were known colloquially) at work and play. They are often shown in groups celebrating holidays or fun moments against the backdrop of a horrific war. Other images suggest levity (see images NA-A162 above and SS-230B below) but also show the serious work being done (see image PBG-3143 earlier in this post). Formal group photographs, such as the nursing sisters shown in G-1448 below, are very common. For many of the more remote or rural bases, especially in the earliest years of the war, nursing sisters are the only women present in the associated photographic records.

A formal group photo with 41 individuals, including 12 servicewomen, five of whom are wearing the distinctive white veil of a nursing sister. The group is organized in three rows; the front row is seated.

G-1448 “[Hospital staff, No. 1 Naval Air Gunnery School, R.N., Yarmouth, N.S.],” 05/01/1945 (a052262).

A group of fifteen women, mostly in civilian dress, engages in various leisure pursuits in what looks like a living room or lounge-like setting. Many appear to be engaged in needlecraft.

SS-230B “Sewing Circle (WD’s) Intelligence Officers,” 04/04/1943 (MIKAN 5285070).

Do you want to know more? Did your aunty or grandma serve in the RCAF-WD? Are you interested in knowing more about her service?

Check out LAC’s extensive resources and records related to the Second World War, including information on how to request military service files. Service files for Second World War—War Dead (1939–1947) are available via our online database.

Explore other photographic holdings at LAC, such as the PL prefix—Public Liaison Office sub-sub-series, a fabulous resource for RCAF photographs that sits, archive-wise, just outside of accession 1967-052 (the focus for this particular research project). Any researcher looking for a RCAF aunty or grandma (or grandpa!) in the archives should include these photographs in their search.

There’s more information about the RCAF’s Centennial on the official RCAF website.

Rebecca Murray is a Literary Programs Advisor in the Programs Division at Library and Archives Canada.

Cheese and walnut loaf from 1924

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Cooking with Library and Archives Canada bannerBy Ariane Gauthier

In 1924, the Department of Agriculture published the booklet Mangeons du fromage canadien : Recettes et menus. It highlights the health, nutritional and economic benefits of cheese, particularly Quebec cheese. Evidently knowledge of the nutritional value of this food has changed a lot since then. At the time, the booklet stated: [Translation] “There is no meal where cheese has no comfortable place, and he who goes to work fortified by this nutritious food will accomplish, with the same zest, the same amount of work as if he had eaten a hearty meat-based meal.”

I found this book in our online Collection Search tool rather than in our Aurora catalog. I was hoping to find something a little more personalized, like a family recipe slipped into an archived letter! Then I discovered a record from the Department of Agriculture on the export of Canadian cheese. Lo and behold, it was hiding the booklet Mangeons du fromage : Recettes et menus in English and French.

Cover page of a booklet with the inscription "Mangeons du fromage : Recettes et menus" [Translation: Cheese Recipes for Every Day].

Cover page of the booklet Mangeons du fromage : Recettes et menus, [Cheese Recipes for Every Day] published in 1924 (OCLC 937533172). Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

(This booklet can also be found in Aurora, OCLC 937533172. This is the easiest way to access it.)

This little book was tucked away in a pile of interviews, economic reports and photo envelopes about Canadian cheese from 1920 to 1924. It immediately piqued my curiosity.

But that did not stop me from reading the whole file. I learned that at the time, the dairy industry was quite unstable in Canada. Exports to Great Britain remained steady (especially for cheese) thanks to a particularly generous premium, but cheese consumption was declining. The British—our biggest buyers—no longer favoured this food as much, and neither did Canadians.

The Department of Agriculture and the producers were concerned: would Canada lose its place on the international market? In this context, Mangeons du fromage : Recettes et menus was born.

I went through the booklet looking for a recipe. My only criterion was to find something new, so I set my sights on a recipe for cheese and walnut loaf.

Text describing the ingredients and steps for the cheese and walnut loaf recipe.

Photo of the cheese and walnut loaf recipe (OCLC 937533172). Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

Cheese and walnut loaf recipe [translation]

One cup of cheese, one cup of coarsely chopped walnuts, one tablespoon of lemon juice, two tablespoons of hot sauce, three tablespoons of tomato sauce to moisten, one finely chopped onion, one cup of crumb, one tablespoon of olive oil, salt and pepper to taste.
Place in a well-greased baking pan; roast on low heat and leave in the oven until the top is a perfect golden brown.

I began by gathering the ingredients, making sure to choose a Canadian cheese. I chose a local cheddar made near Ottawa.

Ingredients used for the cheese and walnut loaf recipe: tomato paste, hot sauce, cheddar cheese, breadcrumbs, olive oil, lemon, pepper, salt and walnuts. (The onion is not in the photo.)

The ingredients for the recipe. Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

The recipe called for one cup of crumb. This seemed odd to me, and I looked at the English booklet to compare. To my surprise, Cheese Recipes for Every Day featured completely different recipes. Not a single recipe for cheese and walnut loaf! To avoid wasting a good loaf, I chose to use ready-made breadcrumbs.

The first thing I noticed was the lack of instructions. The ingredients are listed, then it simply says to put everything in a well-greased pan and [translation] “roast on low heat.”

All ingredients placed separately in a bowl: cheddar cheese, walnuts, tomato paste, onions, hot sauce and breadcrumbs.

The ingredients in a bowl. The recipe does not say to mix them, but we can guess that this is the next step. Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

In short, the recipe seems to rely on the reader’s common sense, so I stirred the ingredients together. The result was quite dry, probably because of the breadcrumbs. I added a little water, but that did not help much. I stuck with it nonetheless, not daring to change the recipe too much.

Three close-up shots, side by side, showing the ingredients being mixed and transferred to a baking dish.

The ingredients are added and mixed. The result is more-or-less homogenous. Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

I then poured the mixture into a well-greased mould, which I had lined with parchment paper to make the unmoulding easier. Since no baking temperature was specified, I decided to put it in at 400oF and keep an eye on the loaf. After about 15 minutes, it had a nice colour and smelled toasty; I removed it from the oven. Here is the result:

Cheese and walnut loaf on a wooden board.

Cheese and walnut loaf from 1924, which barely stays together in one piece. Image courtesy of the author, Ariane Gauthier.

The loaf barely held together; it was obviously very dry. It did not survive the journey from my home to 395 Wellington Street, turning into a kind of crumble. Nevertheless, I think my colleagues appreciated the surprising taste, which I would compare to that of vegetarian spaghetti meatballs.

What do you think?

If I had to do it again, I would sacrifice a good loaf of bread to use its crumb; it would surely absorb the mixture better than the ready-made breadcrumbs. I would also use a local cheese with a higher moisture content.

If you try this recipe, please share pictures of your results with us using the hashtag #CookingWithLAC and tagging our social media: Facebook, Instagram, X (Twitter), YouTube, Flickr and LinkedIn.

Additional resources:

Ariane Gauthier is a reference archivist with the Access and Services Branch at Library and Archives Canada.

The Final Charge of the Canadian Cavalry

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By Ethan M. Coudenys

Shells were falling, machine guns were firing, and horses were whinnying as the final cavalry charge of the Great War on the Western Front took place at Moreuil Wood. The line had broken, and Field Marshal Douglas Haig called for the Canadian Cavalry Brigade—specifically the Lord Strathcona’s Horse—to charge through the gap in the line to advance further into German-controlled territory. This ill-fated charge would be the last wartime charge for the Canadians in military history.

Canadian Cavalry Brigade on horseback charging.

Sir Alfred Munnings
The Charge of Flowerdew’s Squadron
CWM 19710261-0443
Beaverbrook Collection of War Art
Canadian War Museum

March 30, 1918, was the mid-point of the 100 Days Campaign—a campaign which saw incredible advances through German-controlled lines on the Western Front and the beginning of the final phase of the First World War. At Moreuil Wood, the infantry and artillery attacks had, in the opinion of the generals commanding the attack, broken the German defensive line, and for the first time since 1914, the Canadian Cavalry Brigade would remount and attack.

Between January 1915 and early 1918, cavalry soldiers—referred to as “troopers”—took on the role of infantry personnel. They worked in the same trenches as all the other soldiers and were required to defend and attack using the same tactics as the infantry. For all intents and purposes, they were infantry troops, however, they also had to pack their kits according to their actual designation: cavalry troopers. They were therefore always required to carry their tack, feed and water for their mounts, rations and water for themselves, ammunition, etc. Yet, they were not given the same packs as infantry troops. They were able to hold some of these supplies in their saddlebags, but they had to transport heavy equipment without a proper way of storing it.

Group of soldiers on horseback.

Lord Strathcona’s Horse in 1916, moving behind the front line (a000119).

Despite the negligible use of cavalry on the Western Front after the first months of the Great War, the cavalry remained at the forefront of the minds of those planning Allied offensives. In Great Britain, the General Planning Staff was largely composed of cavalry officers, and Douglas Haig was one of them. Cavalry was therefore considered vital to winning the war against the German Empire. Rarely used in battle as actual cavalry troopers, this final charge proved, once and for all, that in modern warfare, the cavalry was of little strategic value.

On that fateful day, Lieutenant Gordon Muriel Flowerdew led the Lord Strathcona’s Horse Company C cavalry group on two charges against a myriad of German defensive positions. Three hundred German infantrymen defended their position. Using the feared MG-08 heavy machine gun and the newly invented light machine gun, they mowed down the advancing cavalry within minutes. Nevertheless, the only surviving trooper remembers Lieutenant Flowerdew shouting “It’s a charge, boys! It’s a charge!” Racing at a full gallop, the squadron met the German Army, but ultimately failed in its attempt to take the position.

This earned Flowerdew the Victoria Cross, the highest award for bravery in the British Commonwealth. However, Flowerdew’s story did not end happily since his squadron lost all but one trooper in the attack.

Today, at Moreuil Wood, a small memorial commemorates the sacrifice made by Company C of the Lord Strathcona’s Horse. The battlefield there is strewn with the remains of the attacking Canadian horses, their men, and the German soldiers who defended their line. This was the last charge of the Canadian Cavalry Brigade. After the Second World War, the Canadian Cavalry Brigade was largely reorganized into armoured, tank and motorized corps. All but a small number of troopers were assigned ceremonial roles in the Royal Canadian Army.

Unfortunately, no wartime photographers were able to capture the final charge of Company C, led by Lieutenant Flowerdew, but the famous British painter, Sir Alfred Munnings, captured the moment and immortalized it in an oil painting completed in the 1920s. The painting is now held at the Canadian War Museum.

Additional resources

Ethan M. Coudenys is a Genealogy Consultant at Library and Archives Canada.

Summer Student Experience at the Archives

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By Valentina Donato

I have always had an interest in artefacts that share a story. Throughout my undergraduate studies at the University of Ottawa, I surrounded myself with history by working at different museums. As a student working at Library and Archives Canada (LAC), I have learned a remarkable amount about archives and preserving the documentary heritage of Canada. I first found the student archival assistant position through the Federal Student Work Experience Program and thought it would be an engaging summer job. The LAC student program has been full of opportunities to gain experience and learn more about LAC itself and other archives in Ottawa. One of my goals coming into this position was to decide if a career in archives was the right path for me, and I focused on networking and learning as much as possible about municipal and federal archives. Additionally, I had the opportunity to participate in many tours of LAC facilities, as well as other archives like the City of Ottawa Archives and the Canadian War Museum Archive. Not only have the tours been interesting and educational, but I also discovered a new side to historical field I had not known about.

Currently, I am working in the Reappraisal team within the Government Records Initiative Division. In this position, I’ve learned a great deal about how reappraisal plays a critical role in the delivery of LAC’s mandate by supporting discoverability of our holdings and by improving access to government records. One focus of the Reappraisal team is to process backlogged material to identify non-archival records, such as duplicate records, and remove them. In doing so, the team processes archival material and incorporates it into the appropriate place in our collection. Another aim of reappraisal work is to improve the quality of existing records by ensuring that they’re accurately described and documented so that researchers can find what they’re looking for. Both priorities improve how accessible LAC’s government archives are for Canadians and those with an interest in Canadian history. This has been extremely interesting to me because of my interest in making Canada’s history more discoverable and accessible to the public.

As a history student, I believe this is crucial to understanding our past, and I was happily surprised to learn how hands-on my job would be. In the first few months of my summer position, I focused on cataloguing, arranging, and writing descriptions of archival records. It was so rewarding to be able to organize and create finding aids because it allowed for me to aid in making the Government of Canada archives far more accessible to people. I have also had the opportunity to work on the Undiscovered Specialized Media Holdings pilot project with senior archivist Geneviève Morin and archivist Emily Soldera, where I have been looking through boxes of textual documents from the Department of Agriculture. This project has helped me put into practice the skills and knowledge I have acquired through my online assessment of records; I’ve seen first-hand the kinds of files I have been cataloguing.

The goal of the Undiscovered Specialized Media Project was to find whether specialized media (such as photographs, posters, or objects) have gone unseen in boxes that were marked as being exclusively textual. The targeted boxes of textual records did reveal many interesting, specialized media finds! To make these finds more discoverable to the public, we tracked our findings and met with the Collection Manager of Government Records, Elise Rowsome. She discussed with us how our new discoveries could be safely stored and preserved.

Side by side of a long rectangular poster in green and yellow that reads “Use Ontario Onions with MEAT …… in SOUP …..COOKED … for FLAVOURING” with images of four meals underneath, and a carrot bag by the brand Wonder Pak with an image of a cartoon homemaker and a text that reads “Canada No. 1 Grade Carrots”.

Fruit and Vegetable Division files, Mikan 134109: RG 17, Volume 4718, File 4718 2-Onions part 1 [Onion print] and RG 17, volume 4717, File 4717 2-carrot part 1 840.3C1 [Carrot packaging]. Note that these files will be temporarily unavailable as work continues ensuring their preservation and rehousing. Image courtesy of the author, Valentina Donato.

Pictured above are some of my favourite finds from the Fruit and Vegetable Division files (Mikan 134109). There were posters, food packaging prototypes, advertisements, labels and more, all tucked away in what was previously filed as textual records. Seeing these everyday packaging items transported me into the past and gave me a glimpse of Canadian society. Some of my favourite advertisements were from Alcan Aluminum c. 1959, which not only included finalized advertisements, but the mockups of ads as well, each depicting food and products that could be stored or cooked with aluminum (as pictured below). What caught my eye with these items (and what my photographs unfortunately cannot fully convey) were the colourful and reflective aluminum details added into the advertisements themselves. Our next steps are to determine how these artefacts will be rehoused, described, and tracked in our cataloguing system to make them available to researchers.

Side by side of Alcan Aluminum advertisements depicting products that can be preserved using aluminum. Made with reflective aluminum accents that reflect light. The text reads: “The most shelf-assured products are wrapped in Alcan Aluminum Foil”, and “They spotlight themselves”.

Fruits and Vegtable Divison, Mikan 134109, RG 17, Volume 4734 30-1 part 2 [Alcan Aluminum advertisements]. Note that these files will be temporarily unavailable as work continues ensuring their preservation and rehousing. Image courtesy of the author, Valentina Donato.

Another interesting find was from the Fredericton Potato Research Centre files (Mikan 206115). Not only was there a whole box of negatives and photographic prints, but I also found a slide carousel, a series of small colour photographs that are projected in a specific order, with an audiocassette presentation accompanying it. Through the course of this project, I have learned that different equipment is needed to consult certain types of specialized media. Take the slide carousel, for example: we will have to view the slides safely on a heat-free light table while playing the cassette with an appropriate device. This is done with the aid of preservation experts not only to ensure proper handling but also to learn about its context and benefit to LAC’s archives. In addition to these fascinating specialized media finds, the importance of the Reappraisal team re-examining LAC’s existing holdings comes to light; the work is never complete, as we are retroactively reviewing records previously acquired and enhancing the collection to make it easier for Canadians to navigate. I look forward to undertaking the next steps in this project and to learning how this work progresses.

A slide carousel, complete with slides, with an audiocassette beside it, photographed from above.

Fredericton Potato Research Centre files, Mikan 206115, Box 50, Slide Show: Fredericton Research Station. Note that these files will be temporarily unavailable as work continues ensuring their preservation and rehousing. Image courtesy of the author, Valentina Donato.

Overall, the student experience at LAC has been extremely rewarding. I am excited to be able to stay on as a part-time student while I complete my studies; I will get to continue my work in reappraisal with arrangement and descriptive work, as well as see the next steps of the Undiscovered Specialized Media Holdings project. Moreover, being in my fourth year of my bachelor’s program, my experience at LAC has opened my eyes to all the potential career paths I want to explore within the heritage and archives field. I am excited to see where this experience takes me and to possibly learn more about underrated root vegetables.

Additional resources

Valentina Donato is an Archival Assistant in the Government Record Branch at Library and Archives Canada.

The Great Gabrielle and Young Annik

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By Ariane Brun del Re and Stéphane Lang

Did you know that famous novelist Gabrielle Roy, known for Bonheur d’occasion (1945) (published in English as The Tin Flute, 1947), La petite poule d’eau (1950) (published in English as Where Nests the Water Hen, 1951), and Rue Deschambault (1955) (published in English as Street of Riches, 1957) also published children’s books?

Sepia photograph of a Caucasian woman with dark hair, smiling and sitting in front of a bookshelf with her arms crossed.

Writer Gabrielle Roy in 1946 (e010957756).

In 1976, Gabrielle Roy released Ma vache Bossie, a picture book illustrated by Louise Pomminville. It tells the story of a young girl who receives a funny birthday gift: her father gives her a cow named Bossie so that she can drink milk that’s richer than the milkman’s. But the gift, which was very expensive and cumbersome, does not please her mother. In addition to bothering the neighbours, Bossie produces so much milk that the family no longer knows what to do with it!

In the biography Gabrielle Roy, une vie (1996) (published in English as Gabrielle Roy: A Life, 1999), François Ricard explains that Gabrielle Roy wrote Ma vache Bossie around 1954, at the same time as Rue Deschambault. The text first appeared under the title “Ma vache” in the magazine Terre et Foyer in the summer of 1963. Gabrielle Roy then reworked it around 1974 to include it in Fragiles Lumières de la terre (published in English as The Fragile Lights of Earth, 1982), a book that brings together texts that had already been published elsewhere, but that had become difficult to access. In the end, Ma vache Bossie was removed from the manuscript; the story appeared instead in the form of an illustrated book published by Éditions Leméac. It was also featured in Contes pour enfants (1998), which brought together four animal stories written by Gabrielle Roy. In the meantime, the picture book was translated into English by Alan Brown and was published under the title My Cow Bossie (1988), with the same illustrations as in the French edition.

Cover of the illustrated book Ma vache Bossie, featuring a brown and white cow in a pasture.

Cover of the picture book Ma vache Bossie (1976) by Gabrielle Roy, illustrated by Louise Pomminville (OCLC 299347564).

For a long time, we thought that the first edition of Ma vache Bossie, written in the 1950s, had been lost. But then we received an email from Annik Charbonneau, a retired math teacher who was nine years old when Gabrielle Roy wrote Ma vache Bossie. At that time, Annik spent her summers in the Charlevoix area, where Gabrielle Roy also visited. The great writer and the young girl met at the Belle Plage hotel, where Gabrielle Roy and her husband sometimes dined. The owners were friends of Annik’s parents, Fernand Charbonneau and Francine Grignon-Charbonneau.

It was following these meetings that Gabrielle Roy offered the typescript of Ma vache Bossie to young Annik. In the accompanying handwritten letter dated December 10, 1954, the writer explains that she gave Annik this story [translation] “as promised,” “in place of the tales [she would have] liked to tell [her] last summer.” The letter concludes with some valuable guidance: [translation] “Above all, remain caring, with a heart ready to love if you allow me a word of advice; that is the best way to learn to live well and richly.” Sixty-eight years later, Annik Charbonneau contacted us to have these documents preserved at Library and Archives Canada, where the Gabrielle Roy fonds is located.

Handwritten letter addressed to Annik Charbonneau and signed by Gabrielle Roy. It is written in blue ink with cursive script.

Handwritten letter from Gabrielle Roy to Annie (actually Annik) Charbonneau accompanying the typescript of Ma vache Bossie (e011414002).

After receiving Annik Charbonneau’s documents, we compared them with the two typescripts of Ma vache Bossie in the Gabrielle Roy fonds, acquired by Library and Archives Canada in 1982. The archivist in charge of the collection at the time determined that both documents were likely written around 1970. We discovered, however, that the first of the two typescripts was identical to Annik Charbonneau’s: it was a carbon copy of the one she had given us (or vice versa).

The first page of two typescripts of Ma vache Bossie, which are carbon copies of each other. The one on the right, which Gabrielle Roy kept, contains a handwritten correction.

Two typescripts of Ma vache Bossie. The one on the left was a gift to Annik Charbonneau, while the writer kept the one on the right. The first is part of the Annik Charbonneau collection on Gabrielle Roy, and the second is part of the Gabrielle Roy fonds (e011414003 and e011414004).

Thanks to the accompanying letter from Gabrielle Roy, we were finally able to correctly date the typescript in our possession. Annik Charbonneau’s donation also revealed that Gabrielle Roy sometimes typed two copies of the same text, inserting a carbon sheet between two sheets of paper. What distinguishes the two typescripts are Gabrielle Roy’s handwritten annotations, which are more numerous in the copy she kept than in the one given to Annik Charbonneau, where she simply corrects typos or adds a missing word. The last page of Annik Charbonneau’s typescript bears Gabrielle Roy’s signature, showing her concern to authenticate it before giving it away. In this way, new acquisitions sometimes provide us with contextual elements to better understand the documents already in our collection.

Today, the two typescripts are finally reunited at Library and Archives Canada, but not in the same fonds. The one we recently acquired is part of the Annik Charbonneau collection on Gabrielle Roy. In addition to the typescript and the letter, this collection includes two books by Gabrielle Roy dedicated to Francine G. Charbonneau, as well as a handwritten note and clippings from newspapers and magazines such as Châtelaine and Madame, which were once collected in an album by Annik Charbonneau and her mother. The ensemble reflects the impression that Gabrielle Roy left on the people she encountered in Charlevoix, such as young Annik, to whom she wanted to tell stories.

Additional resources

  • Gabrielle Roy: A Life, François Ricard (OCLC 39380923)
  • Gabrielle Roy fonds, Library and Archives Canada (MIKAN 3672665)

Ariane Brun del Re and Stéphane Lang are French-language literature archivists with Library and Archives Canada’s Private Archives and Published Heritage Branch

Accessing Personnel Records of the First World War: A new database at Library and Archives Canada

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By Richard Yeomans

On August 4, 1914, Britain formally declared war on Germany, a decision that brought Canada into the theatre of conflict in Europe because of its status as a dominion within the British Empire. Though the Dominion Government could decide the extent of its involvement, Prime Minister Robert Borden declared in a speech to the House of Commons on August 19, 1914, that Canada would “stand shoulder to shoulder with Britain and the other dominions in this quarrel. And that duty we shall not fail to fulfill as the honour of Canada demands it. Not for love of battle, but for the cause of honour.” More than half a million Canadians enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) between 1914 and 1918, including volunteers and conscripts, while thousands more found ways to contribute to the war effort on the home front.

There are roughly 622 000 individual First World War service file records held by Library and Archives Canada (LAC), which document enlistment (attestation), movement between units, medical histories, pay and discharge or notification of death. These files are generally between 25 and 75 pages in length and are excellent sources for many different types of historical and genealogical research.

Screenshot of the original Personnel Records of the First World War page on Library and Archives Canada’s website.

Original Personnel Records of the First World War database (Library and Archives Canada).

Access to the Personnel Records of the First World War database at LAC has been available for free online for nearly two decades via a standalone Personnel Records database. This database incorporated CEF files with Imperial Gratuities, Non-Permanent Active Militia, Rejected CEF Volunteers, and Royal Newfoundland Regiment and Forestry Corps records. Researchers familiar with this older database were able to search the archives by first and last names, regimental numbers, city or province of birth and/or enlistment and box number. Results were displayed in alphabetical order but could be reordered by date of birth, rank or regimental number.

Selecting an individual file from the results list provided a generic description of the record and included a digitized copy of the service file in PDF format that could be either opened and read or downloaded and saved to your computer. Every service file had a unique web URL, which historical researchers and genealogists alike could copy or save to easily access later.

Screenshot of an individual file view in the Personnel Records of the First World War database on Library and Archives Canada’s website.

Individual file view in the original Personnel Records of the First World War database (Library and Archives Canada).

For 10 years, this database provided Canadians at home and across the globe with access to a collection of records that document an important part of their family histories and connections to a shared national history. Library and Archives Canada is committed to maintaining and expanding that level of access as we continue to develop and improve upon our digital archival databases including Collection Search, Census Search and our new First World War Personnel Records database.

Launched in November 2023, this new database was developed as part of ongoing work to bring all of LAC’s standalone databases into one federated search tool, Collection Search. This work is necessary because the older web application that hosts the standalone CEF database is no longer sustainable to maintain. To keep these records accessible for years to come, these files were successfully migrated into Collection Search and a new database tool was created to streamline access to the Personnel Records of the First World War. This database tool offers all the same search features as the original application while also offering new ways to search, filter and extract records and data for research.

Screenshot of the new First World War Personnel Records database on Library and Archives Canada’s website.

New First World War Personnel Records database (Library and Archives Canada).

Researchers may search the new database by using first and last names, regimental number, enlistment city and province, or by using specific terms including unit number and enlistment date.

New features include the ability to search by date range, to save records of interest to your My Research using your LAC My Account and to apply filters during your search to help organize and limit the number of record results listed. It is important to note that both databases will provide you with the same number of search results based on similar search criteria. For example, searching the last name McCrae in either database will produce 33 different search results that you may select from. However, in the newer Personnel Records database, you can reduce the number of results using a variety of limiter options located on the search results page. These limiters include information such as military rank, date range for year of birth, birth country or different enlistment geographic options.

Screenshot of the search results for the last name McCrae on Library and Archives Canada’s website.

Search results for last name McCrae (Library and Archives Canada).

Applying these limiters will generate a reduced list of results that is more specific and refined according to the search parameters that you control. Because you control the search criteria, it is possible to perform both extremely specific and very general searches using the new Personnel Records database.

Finding Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae

Accessing attestation papers and personnel records available online, for free, through LAC remains an important staple within our digitized archival catalogue. For example, researchers can access digitized archival records using the personnel records of Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae, the Canadian physician and poet best known for authoring the war memorial poem “In Flanders Fields.”

Lieutenant-Colonel McCrae’s records may be found in several different ways, including searching by his first and last name, unit number, city of enlistment, or regimental number. Even just a name is a good starting point. Searching the last name McCrae yields 33 results in both the old and the new database, while searching for John McCrae generates 4 results.

Side by side screenshots of the search results for John McCrae in both databases on Library and Archives Canada’s website.

Search results for John McCrae in either database (Library and Archives Canada).

From the list of results, displayed above in both the old and new CEF databases, researchers can also view a general abstract about the file that includes (if available) regimental numbers, date of birth and archival reference information. In the older CEF database, this information could also be used to reorganize the list view of records. In the new database, it is still possible to reorganize results by date of birth or alphabetically, but unlike in the older database, you can reduce the number of results in the list view using the filters available. In this instance, we know that the John McCrae who penned “In Flanders Fields” was born in Guelph, Ontario, and we can select that option located under “Birth City” on the left-hand side of the results list. Doing so will generate a new list, now filtered to only one result that we can open and view.

Screenshot of the viewing tool showing the personnel record of John McCrae on Library and Archives Canada’s website with arrows pointing to specific parts of the image.

Viewing the personnel record of John McCrae (Library and Archives Canada).

Opening a record in the new CEF database looks different but still retains the functionality of the original database. The first page of the attestation paper will display, by default, on the screen as shown in the image above.

Green Arrow: In the image carousel below the attestation page, you can navigate between the pages of that record. At the end of the image carousel is a PDF icon. Selecting the icon will load a scan of the entire personnel file, which includes a copy of the attestation paper. This file may be downloaded, for free, as it was in the original database.

Black Arrow: If you have a LAC My Account, you can save records of interest to a research list. Clicking the “Add to My Research” button while signed into your LAC My Account will generate a list of your current save folders that you may select and add to, or you may create a new folder and add the record. Previously, researchers had to copy and save internet URLs to quickly access the records they viewed. Using the My Research feature of LAC’s My Account, you may now build entire research lists with records held at LAC, like a bibliography.

Yellow Arrow: To download the file in its entirety, simply click the download button, check that you agree to our copyright terms and conditions and select “Download file.” The record will then be downloaded to your computer or electronic device in PDF format.

Behind the scenes: Digital Access Services

Maintaining consistent and sustainable online access to the records that document the Canadian experience during the First World War presents many challenges. Building a database tool that can serve not only historians and genealogists but also individuals with limited experience using online archives is a balancing act. Creating a tool that can meet the needs of many kinds of researchers begins by asking how researchers experience LAC online and what products we can develop or adjust to improve that overall experience. Improvements to our digital products, such as the new First World War Personnel Records database, are ongoing and responsive to the feedback that we receive from users. If you wish to submit feedback about how we can improve the new First World War Personnel Records database or other digital products currently offered by LAC, please consider emailing your suggestions to the Digital Access Services team or scheduling a feedback session with our UX Designers. LAC’s Digital Access Services team is committed to preserving access to digitized military personnel files and recognizes the significance of these documents to researchers here in Canada and around the world.

The Digital Access Services team is comprised of User Experience Designers, Data Scientists, Web Programmers and Product Managers. The members of our team are also experienced genealogists, historians, historical researchers, archivists, and client-focused public servants who are likewise stakeholders in the preservation and promotion of Canada’s history and heritage. Maintaining free and public access to the roughly 622 000 individual First World War service files in addition to millions of census records, immigration and citizenship records, government publications such as the Canada Gazette, audio files, images, and so much more is a huge job. It is a task that requires time, patience, and more than a little bit of teamwork. Nevertheless, our work continues, and the Digital Access Services team looks forward to bringing new research tools and updates in 2024.

FAQ about Library and Archives Canada’s CEF records and databases

Why is the older First World War Personnel Files Database being decommissioned?

The original database is fast approaching being 10 years old. The platform that hosted the database, Microsoft SharePoint, was first released in 2001 and is becoming more obsolete as time goes on. This means that it will become more difficult for our Web Designers and Programmers to maintain the original database and we risk losing access to the military personnel records altogether. Library and Archives Canada’s Digital Access Services team has been proactive and began migrating records into Collection Search in 2019. This way we can preserve free and public access to these and other records for years to come.

Who oversees the new First World War Personnel Records database?

The Digital Access Services team at LAC is responsible for the maintenance of LAC’s online databases, including Collection and Census Search. Our team does not alter or edit archival documents. Rather, our work focuses on access to the digitized copies of records.

Is the First World War Personnel Records database distinct and separate from Collection Search?

Yes and no – the new database pulls records that have been migrated into Collection Search, which is LAC’s federated archival catalogue search tool. Digital Access Services continues to migrate records from other older standalone databases into Collection Search, while also acknowledging that many users have more specific research needs. Using database filters, or by creating search forms such as the new First World War Personnel Records database, we can streamline access to specific groups of records as if the standalone databases still exist within Collection Search.

Will internet URLs to the older database stop working? 

No – using URL redirects, saved internet links to specific files will redirect users to the location of that specific record within Collection Search. This means that if you have a collection of saved links to the location of specific military service files in the older application, you can still use those links to locate those records in the new application.

Am I still able to save and download service files?

Yes – the option to download PDF formatted copies of attestation and personnel files is available. Users with a LAC My Account may also save records to their My Research and create entire lists of service records that can be retained without the need to saving an internet URL link.

Richard Yeomans is the Quality Assurance Officer on the Digital Access Team – Access and Services Branch at Library and Archives Canada.

No Leap of Faith

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By Forrest Pass

For those of us stuck in the throes of a Canadian winter, it seems cruel to add an extra day to the month of February. We might well ask why a day isn’t added to the summer holidays instead. In fact, two proposals to reform the calendar would have done just that, and as records at Library and Archives Canada show, the Government of Canada was open to the change.

February’s “Leap Day” is the last survivor of an ancient tradition of “intercalary days”—dates added to keep the calendar in sync with astronomical observations. Early calendars based on the 28-day phases of the moon lost time when compared to the summer and winter solstices and spring and autumn equinoxes. Intercalary days filled the gap. In ancient Rome, however, politicians used the addition of intercalary days for political advantage: would you vote for a candidate who promised you more holiday time, or a few more days to pay off a debt?

Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) hoped to end these tricks with an improved calendar. Based on an Egyptian model, which followed the movement of the sun rather than of the moon, the new “Julian” calendar featured alternating months of 30 and 31 days. Caesar’s February – the last month of the traditional Roman year – had 28 days and an additional intercalary day every three years, later corrected to every four years.

Over two thousand years later, we still use this calendar. True, the Gregorian calendar, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 and since adopted globally, corrected for Caesar’s six-minute overestimation of the length of the solar year by eliminating three leap days every four hundred years. However, it did not change the number of months or their lengths, which became a key criticism for modern calendar reformers.

One such reformer was the British-Canadian accountant Moses Bruine Cotsworth (1859–1943). Cotsworth was a “pyramidologist”—part of a community of archaeological enthusiasts who believed that the dimensions and orientation of Egyptian pyramids revealed forgotten scientific truths. Based on this research, Cotsworth proposed a new calendar, first outlined in his 1905 book, The Rational Almanac. Two years later, Cotsworth became head of British Columbia’s Civil Service Commission, and in 1910, he moved from England to Greater Vancouver. His New Westminster, B.C. home served as the headquarters of the “International Almanak Reform League” (IARL).

A blue hardcover book. The title, printed in gold lettering, is “The Rational Almanac Tracing the Evolution of Modern Almanacs from Ancient Ideas of Time and Suggesting Improvements by Moses B. Cotsworth of York. Five shillings net. 180 Illustrations.” The cover is decorated with Egyptian elements, including pyramids, a sphinx, sundials and a portrait of a pharaoh under a sun, all in gold.

Moses Cotsworth’s The Rational Almanac: Tracing the Evolution of Modern Almanacs from Ancient Ideas of Time and Suggesting Improvements (OCLC 1006983102). Image courtesy of the author, Forrest Pass.

Cotsworth’s proposed calendar, eventually christened the “Yearal”, consisted of 13 months, each of 28 days. The 13th month, “Sol”, was inserted between June and July. Particular dates fell on the same day of the week: the first of each month was always a Sunday. As the 13 months accounted for only 364 days, Cotsworth proposed a “Skip Day” the last day of the year and a summer “Leap Day” every four years. Both intercalary days would be holidays and, critically, would not be assigned a day of the week to maintain the Yearal’s regularity.

Cotsworth’s campaign found influential supporters. In the United States, George Eastman, president of the Eastman Kodak photographic company, eagerly endorsed the Yearal, and Kodak would use a 13-month calendar for internal accounting purposes until 1989. At home, Sir Sandford Fleming, the Canadian inventor of standard time zones, agreed to serve as honorary president of the IARL. In 1925, a federal advisory committee recommended adoption of the 13-month calendar, which the government quietly instructed its delegates to support at the League of Nations’ Fourth General Conference on Communication and Transit in Geneva, Switzerland in 1931. Cotsworth even joined the Canadian delegation as a technical advisor.

The title page of a pamphlet reads "Time to Fix the Year by the 'Skip-Day' and SOL. Pharaoh and his Queen Commend the New Month 'SOL' for permanent insertion between June and July 1917. Fix Days to Dates. Fix Easter and Holidays. Dec. 31st and Leap-Day to be ‘Dies-Non’ Holidays without Week-Day or Monthly Date." The word "SOL" is on a sun at the apex of a pyramid between an ancient Egyptian figure and a scarab beetle. Below is a picture of an Egyptian pharaoh pointing to a calendar entitled "Model Month", flanked by figures representing the continents of Europe, Africa, America, and Asia, all flanked by two obelisks inscribed with ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Using ancient imagery to sell a modern calendar. Illustration by Graham Hyde in The Fixed ‘Yearal’ Proposed to Replace Changing Almanaks and Calendars by Moses B. Cotsworth (New Westminster, B.C.: International Almanak Reform League, 1914). (e011783160)

The illustrations of Cotsworth’s pamphlets linked the Yearal project with the lessons of the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx. His critics responded with publications that were also visually attractive. Alongside Cotsworth’s materials, the Department of Justice file on the 13-month calendar includes a brightly coloured booklet entitled The Story of a Lost Day by the Seventh-day Adventist writer Francis D. Nichol.

The brightly coloured cover of a book entitled “The Story of a Lost Day”. A man wearing spectacles turns the pages of a calendar labelled “December 28” to find a new page labelled “Blank Day.” The scene is illuminated by a bright floral lamp typical of the interwar period.

A religious response to calendar reform. Cover of The Story of a Lost Day by Francis D. Nichol (Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association, 1930). (e011783161)

Nichol’s main concern with the calendar was religious. The addition of Skip Day, falling annually between Saturday, December 28, and Sunday, January 1, made eight days rather than seven between the last Sabbath of the old year and the first of the new. This objection from Seventh-day Adventists, some other Christian churches and Orthodox Jewish groups explains international reluctance to adopt Cotsworth’s plan.

The Yearal also had a new rival. The “World Calendar”, first proposed by American rubber heiress Elisabeth Achelis in 1930, retained the Gregorian calendar’s 12-month structure but standardized the length of each season, or “quarter”, at 91 days. Together the four quarters made 364 days; an international holiday called “Worldsday”, falling annually between December and January, corrected the shortfall. World Calendar dates also fell consistently on the same days of the week from year to year. Thus, Achelis’ calendar retained several features of Cotsworth’s Yearal, including a summer leap day every four years, but without the addition of a controversial 13th month.

The World Calendar’s Canadian booster was Arthur J. Hills (1879–1971), an executive at Canadian National Railways, labour relations expert and chair of the World Calendar Association’s Canadian Affiliate. Working through his professional network, Hills convinced many business and labour leaders to support the World Calendar.

A series of 14 calendar pages arranged in a ring around the text "A Solar Cycle consists of 28 years. This shows the disorder in which the 14 Gregorian Calendars occur from 1928 to 1955. The Gregorian Calendar consists of these 14 different calendars. Unbalanced, irregular, unsettled. Unequal quarters and half years. Wandering holidays. 28 different kinds of months." Below this is a 12-month calendar surmounted by a globe with the text "Balanced, regular, perpetual. The World Calendar. Twelve Months. Equal Quarters." Below this calendar is the text "Every year is the same. The quarters are equal: each quarter has exactly 91 days, 13 weeks or 3 months; the four quarters are identical in form. Each month has 25 weekdays, plus Sundays. Each year begins on Sunday, 1 January; each working year begins on Monday, 2 January. Each quarter begins on Sunday, ends on Saturday. The World Calendar." The whole image is flanked by the signatures "Design by A. J. Hills" and "Drawing by H.J. Dodds".

Arthur J. Hill’s “ingenious diagram” illustrating the “unbalanced, irregular, unsettled [and] unequal” Gregorian calendar and promoting the World Calendar, “a perpetual system, with every year identical.” (e011783162_s1)

The Canadian government was also receptive to the project—at least initially. In 1937, Dominion Statistician R.H. Coats suggested that Canada rescind its support for Cotsworth’s Yearal and instead lobby for international adoption of the World Calendar. In 1955, in response to a United Nations request for member states’ positions on calendar reform, a federal committee studied submissions from World Calendar proponents as well as from the proposal’s detractors. Some objections were new: the Canadian Daughters’ League, a women’s patriotic society, worried that Christmas would always fall on a Monday, complicating pre-Christmas shopping and travel. But for Christian and Jewish groups, calculating the Sabbath remained the most pressing concern: like Cotsworth’s Skip Day, Worldsday would throw off the seven-day cycle. In the end, the committee supported calendar reform in principle but did not endorse the World Calendar. Other governments agreed, and the United Nations quietly dropped its project of global calendar reform.

Almost 70 years later, the challenge for any would-be calendar reformer remains to correct the inconsistencies of the existing calendar without interfering with the traditional calculation of religious observances. As Moses Cotsworth and Arthur Hills found, it’s a trickier puzzle than it might appear—just the thing, perhaps, for some cocoa-coaxed contemplation on a wintry Canadian Leap Day!

Forrest Pass is a curator with the Exhibitions teams at Library and Archives Canada.

Freedom to Read

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By Mary-Francis Turk

At Library and Archives Canada (LAC), we never judge a book by its cover (or its content, for that matter)! We want to make sure that readers and researchers have access to all Canadian publications. LAC’s mandate, as outlined in the Preamble to the Library and Archives of Canada Act, puts emphasis on preserving the documentary heritage of Canada while making it available to the public.

Libraries across Canada have a responsibility to create policies that protect the freedom to read and intellectual freedom. As a national library, LAC has created a permanent collection by acquiring published books, rare and early editions of books and related print material of all kinds.

Through its legal deposit program, LAC acts as a quiet champion against censorship. Every Canadian publication has its place in the national collection. The program has been crucial in aiding LAC’s ongoing efforts to build an inclusive, expansive and accessible national collection.

LAC works closely with publishers to build its collection through the legal deposit program, which is responsible for collecting “materials created in Canada and intended for sale or public distribution.” In doing this, we are able to make material available and preserve it for future generations.

Materials accepted through legal deposit

Canadian publishers and producers submit materials such as

  • Books (monographs)
  • Serials (such as magazines, journals, newsletters)
  • Physical music and video recordings
  • Audiobooks
  • Sheet music
  • Maps
Poster for Freedom to Read Week dated October 19–26, 1986, with three books closed by clamps.

An advertisement promoting reading put out by the Book and Periodical Development Council for Freedom to Read Week in 1986. Library and Archives Canada/Robert Stacey fonds/e010758305. Credit: Michael Hale / Susan Reynolds.

Although it can sometimes feel like censorship is something from the past, there are many examples of more recent instances of challenged publications. This includes several publications that can be found in LAC’s collection:

  • In 2018, David Alexander Robertson’s book Betty: The Helen Betty Osborne Story was “not recommended” for use in Alberta classrooms.
  • In 2016, Robin Stevenson’s book Pride: Celebrating Diversity and Community met resistance during Stevenson’s school visits in British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec.
  • In 2011, Timothy Findley’s book The Wars was used by an Ontario school board in Grade 12 English classes and was subsequently challenged by parents. The school board ultimately decided to keep the book as part of the secondary curriculum.

Canada’s Book and Periodical Council’s Challenged Works List reminds us that publications have historically been and continue to be challenged and censored in Canada. Freedom to Read Week further reminds Canadians that access to publications should not be taken for granted.

Making Canadian publications available to the public and ensuring they are available for future generations is imperative to ongoing intellectual freedom in Canada. This is exactly what we strive to do here in LAC’s legal deposit team.

As we reflect on the freedom to read and the right to intellectual freedom, the task of acquiring and making Canadian publications available to readers across the country seems more important than ever.

Interested in learning more about free expression and censorship in Canada? See a list of the Book and Periodical Council’s English or French works on free expression and censorship in Canada.

Additional resources

Mary-Francis Turk is a Legal Deposit Supervisor in the Private Archives and Published Heritage Branch at Library and Archives Canada.